There
were many specialized craftsmen who worked with their own tools in
their own shops or houses, for some superior who had contact with
the market and who supervised the final processes of manufacture.
These included the goldsmiths, upholsterers, coach makers,
saddlers, and watchmakers, all of whom had many dependents. The
watchmakers had specialists making wheels, pinions, springs,
hands, dials, chains, keys, caps, and studs in their own houses.
The type of industrial organization most common in London was that
in which work was given out to be done in the homes of the
workers: the putting out system. Some industries, such as
watchmaking, silk weaving, and shoemaking were on both a putting
out system and a system of an apprenticeship to journeymen working
on piece work. Shoes were made to order and ready made. The
customer was measured in a shop, the clicker cut out the upper
leathers, which were given to the closer to be closed, and then to
the maker for the sole and heel to be put on. Another class of
shoemaker worked alone or with an apprentice in a garret, cellar,
or stall, using pieces of leather cut out for him by the currier
or leather cutter. London industries included bread, beer,
spirits, and vinegar; sugar refining; tobacco refining; snuff;
spinning and weaving of woolens and worsteds, silk ribbons, tape,
and cloth; printed calico, linens, clothes, laces, tassels, fancy
embroidery, stays, stocking weaving, hats, shoes, leather goods
(boots, shoes hats, gloves, harnesses, saddles), jewelry, glass,
candles, tapestry, musical instruments, cutlery, furniture, paint,
varnish, tools, paper, printer's ink and glue, printing,
publishing, swords, guns, heavy artillery, ships, sails, rope,
carriages, and precious and base metalwares such as brass and
pewter ware.
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