Around 1653, he laid the foundations for the
theory of probabilities, including the creation of "Pascal's
Triangle" of coefficients of (a=b) raised to the nth power.
Jean Ray from France concluded from his experiments that every
piece of material has a given weight, including air and fire.
The Merchant Adventurers were incorporated again in 1643 to have a
monopoly. It was required to admit into membership for 100 pounds
anyone free of London and bred as a merchant, and for 50 pounds
any non-inhabitant of London. The penalty for trading for one who
was not free of the corporation was forfeiture of his goods.
In 1648, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and in 1649
the House of Lords. Also in 1649 it declared that England "should
thenceforth be governed as a commonwealth and free state by the
supreme authority of this nation, the representatives of the
people in Parliament." It made a new constitution.
John Milton defended the Commonwealth as superior to the monarchy
because it could not deteriorate into tyranny in his books: "First
Defense of the People of England" in 1651, and "Second Defense" in
1654. He lauded Cromwell as great in war and great in peace, and
exemplifying the principle that "nature appoints that wise men
should govern fools".
Thomas Hobbes, the son of a clergyman, and tutor to students,
wrote "Leviathan" in 1651 on his theory of sovereignty.
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