A log tied to a rope with knots at equal intervals was
used to measure speed. There were compasses with a bearing dial on
a circular plate with degrees up to 360 noted thereon. Seamen had
access to compilations of Arab mathematicians and astronomers and
to navigational manuals and technical works on the science of
navigation and the instruments necessary for precision sailing.
For merchants there were maps, books about maps, cosmographical
surveys, and books on the newly-discovered lands. In 1569 John
Mercator produced a map taking into account the converging of the
meridians towards the pole. On this chart, a straight line course
would correspond to a mariner's actual course through the water on
the earth's sphere, instead of having the inaccuracies of a
straight line on a map which suggested that the world was flat. It
was in use by 1600.
Christmas was an especially festive time of good fellowship.
People greeted each other with "Good cheer", "God be with you", or
"Against the new year". Carols were often sung and musicians
played many tunes. There was dancing and gambling. There were big
dinners with many kinds of meat and drink. A hearty fire heated
all the house. Many alms were given to beggars.
Parliament enacted laws and voted taxes. The Queen, House of
Lords, and House of Commons cooperated together. There was
relatively little dissension or debating. Bills were read, voted
on, discussed, and passed with the lords, peers, bishops, and
justices sitting in their places according to their degree.
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