In some places, the
threefold system of rotation was replaced by alternating land used
for crops with that used for pasture. The necessity of manuring
and the rotation of crops and grasses such as clover for
enrichment of the soil were recognized. Wheat, rye, barley, peas,
and beans were raised. There was much appropriation of common land
by individual owners by sale or force. Many farms were enclosed by
fences or hedges so that each holder could be independent of his
neighbors. Red and black currants, rhubarb, apricots, and oranges
were now grown. These independent farmers could sell wool to
clothiers, and butter, cheese, and meat to the towns. They also
often did smithwork and ironwork, making nails, horseshoes, keys,
locks, and agricultural implements to sell. A laborer could earn
6d. a day in winter and 7d. a day in summer. Unfree villeinage
ceased on the royal estates. But most land was still farmed in
common and worked in strips without enclosure. Elizabeth made
several proclamations ordering the enclosure of certain enclosed
land to be destroyed and the land returned to tillage. Windmills
now had vanes replacing manual labor to change the position of the
sails when the wind direction changed. Prosperous traders and
farmers who owned their own land assumed local offices as
established members of the community.
The population of the nation was about five million.
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