The universe was finite.
The firmament extended outward in a series of rotating,
crystalline, ethereal spheres to which were attached the various
points of celestial geography. First came the circle of the moon.
The sun orbited the earth. The fixed stars rotated on an outer
firmament. Finally, there was the abode of God and his heavenly
hosts. Different principles ruled the celestial world; it was
orderly, stable, ageless, and enduring. But the world of man
changed constantly due to its mixed four elements of air, earth,
fire, and water each trying to disentangle itself from the others
and seeking to find its natural location. The heavenly spheres
could affect the destinies of men, such as through fate, fortune,
intelligence, cherubim, seraphim, angels, and archangels.
Astrologers read the celestial signs and messages.
Then a seed of doubt was cast on this theory by Nicholaus
Copernicus, a timid monk in Poland, who found inconsistencies in
Ptolemy's work, but saw similarity in the movements of the earth
and other planets. He inferred from planetary movements that their
motion could be explained simply if they were revolving in
circular paths around the sun, rather than around the earth. In
his book of 1543, he also expressed his belief that the earth also
revolved around the sun. This idea so shocked the world that the
word "revolution" became associated with radical change.
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